Illuminating the Path to Sustainable Urban Lighting: Nature's Inspiration in the Fight Against Light Pollution

The transformation of night into an artificially illuminated extension of day represents one of humanity's most profound alterations to the natural environment. Since the advent of electric lighting in the late 19th century, urban areas have gradually erased the boundary between day and night, creating what astronauts describe as a glowing web visible from space. This phenomenon, while symbolizing human progress and urban vitality, has created an environmental crisis that extends far beyond aesthetic concerns.

Light pollution affects approximately 80% of the world's population, with over 20% consuming electricity worldwide (Kyba et al., 2017). The satellite imagery revealing Earth's nighttime illumination presents a stark visualization of this global transformation—dense networks of light emanating from urban centers, creating vast luminous corridors that fragment natural darkness. From the perspective of space, cities appear as brilliant nodes in an interconnected web of artificial illumination, beautiful yet alarming in their intensity and extent.

A compilation of satellite imagery showing the Earth's illumination/light pollution during the hours of darkness.

The historical evolution of urban lighting reveals humanity's progressive conquest of darkness. The transition from gas lamps to electric streetlights, and subsequently to modern LED systems, demonstrates not merely technological advancement but a fundamental shift in our relationship with natural cycles. Vincent van Gogh's "Café Terrace at Night" captures an early moment in this transformation, depicting the warm glow of artificial light creating new social spaces and extending urban life beyond daylight hours. Yet this artistic celebration of illuminated public spaces also foreshadows the environmental consequences we face today.

Vincent Van Gogh: Café Terrace at Night, 1888.

Contemporary urban lighting systems operate with minimal consideration for ecological impact or circadian health. The standard approach prioritizes visibility, security, and economic efficiency while neglecting the complex web of relationships between artificial light, human biology, and natural ecosystems. This disconnect has created environments that are fundamentally at odds with millions of years of evolutionary adaptation to natural light-dark cycles.

Understanding Light Pollution

Light pollution occurs when artificial lights disrupt the natural darkness of the night sky, affecting ecosystems, wildlife, and human health (Longcore & Rich, 2004). The phenomenon manifests in three primary forms: glare (excessive brightness causing visual discomfort), skyglow (the brightening of the night sky overpopulated areas), and light trespass (unwanted illumination spilling beyond intended boundaries). These forms of pollution create cascading effects throughout urban and suburban environments.

The Bortle Scale, developed by astronomer John E. Bortle, provides a standardized measurement of night sky brightness, ranging from Class 1 (pristine dark skies) to Class 9 (inner-city environments with severely light-polluted skies). Most urban dwellers live under Class 6-8 conditions, where the Milky Way is invisible and only the brightest stars penetrate the artificial sky glow (Gaston et al., 2015). This represents not merely an aesthetic loss but a fundamental disconnection from natural cycles that have shaped life on Earth.

The Bortle Scale

The global extent of light pollution is staggering. Satellite data reveals that artificial nighttime lighting increased by approximately 2.2% annually between 2012 and 2016, outpacing population growth and urban expansion (Kyba et al., 2017). This acceleration suggests that light pollution represents an overlooked dimension of urban environmental impact, one that demands immediate attention within sustainable development frameworks.

Ecological and Human Health Impacts

The biological consequences of light pollution extend across multiple scales, from cellular processes to ecosystem-wide disruptions. Circadian rhythm disruption represents perhaps the most direct impact on human health. The human circadian system, evolved over millions of years, relies on the natural transition between light and dark to regulate essential physiological processes including sleep-wake cycles, hormone production, and metabolic functions.

Artificial light exposure, particularly blue-wavelength light emitted by modern LED systems, suppresses melatonin production and disrupts the body's internal clock. Research indicates that chronic circadian disruption correlates with increased risks of sleep disorders, depression, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and certain cancers. Urban populations, constantly exposed to artificial illumination, experience these health impacts at unprecedented scales.

Wildlife populations face even more severe consequences. Ecological light pollution disrupts navigation systems of migratory birds, leading to millions of bird deaths annually from collisions with illuminated structures (Longcore & Rich, 2004). Sea turtle hatchlings evolved to navigate toward moonlight reflecting on ocean waves, become disoriented by coastal lighting and crawl away from the sea toward artificial lights. Nocturnal insects, attracted to artificial light sources, experience population declines that cascade through food webs, affecting pollination networks and predator-prey relationships.

Sea turtle hatchling struggling under artificial illumination

The image of a sea turtle hatchling struggling under artificial illumination powerfully illustrates the tragic mismatch between natural instincts and human-altered environments. These individual tragedies represent broader systemic failures in our approach to urban lighting design.

Lessons from Nature

Nature has long been a master of efficient and harmonious illumination. From fireflies emitting soft glows to the bioluminescence of certain jellyfish, the natural world offers a diverse array of examples where light is used sparingly and purposefully. Understanding these natural lighting systems provides crucial insights for developing sustainable urban lighting solutions.

Circadian Rhythms and Natural Light Patterns

The natural world operates according to predictable light-dark cycles that have shaped evolutionary adaptations across all life forms. Circadian rhythms, internal biological clocks that regulate physiological processes over approximately 24-hour periods, represent one of the most fundamental examples of nature's relationship with light. These rhythms coordinate everything from cellular repair processes to complex behaviors, creating temporal order within biological systems.

Human's Circadian Rhythm

The gradual transition from day to night in natural environments provides a smooth progression of light qualities and intensities. Dawn and dusk offer warm, diffused illumination that gradually shifts color temperature and brightness. This natural lighting pattern contrasts sharply with the abrupt on-off switching characteristic of most urban lighting systems. The harsh transition from full artificial illumination to darkness, or vice versa, creates physiological stress and disrupts the natural preparation for sleep or wakefulness.

Natural light varies not only in intensity but also in spectral composition throughout the day. Morning light contains higher blue wavelengths that promote alertness and cortisol production, while evening light shifts toward warmer red and orange wavelengths that support melatonin production and prepare the body for rest. This dynamic color temperature variation offers a model for adaptive lighting systems that support rather than disrupt circadian health.

The movement of the sun and its colors during the day

Bioluminescent Systems as Design Models

Bioluminescence, the production and emission of light by living organisms, represents one of nature's most elegant lighting solutions. Unlike artificial lighting systems that consume external energy sources, bioluminescent organisms generate light through efficient biochemical processes that produce minimal heat and operate with remarkable energy efficiency.

Fireflies provide perhaps the most familiar example of bioluminescent communication. Their synchronized flashing patterns serve specific biological functions—mate attraction, territory marking, and predator deterrence—while using minimal energy and producing no environmental pollution. The temporal patterns of firefly illumination, appearing only when needed and coordinating with natural rhythms, offer insights for designing responsive urban lighting systems.

Spot lighting embedded in the firefly's body

Deep-sea bioluminescent organisms have evolved even more sophisticated lighting strategies. Some species produce different colors of light for specific functions, use directional light emission to avoid attracting predators, or employ pulsing patterns that minimize energy expenditure while maximizing communication effectiveness. These strategies suggest approaches for urban lighting that achieve necessary functions while minimizing environmental impact.

Soft glows to the bioluminescence of certain jellyfish

The efficiency of bioluminescent systems far exceeds current artificial lighting technologies. Bioluminescence can achieve near 100% efficiency in converting chemical energy to light, compared to the 20-30% efficiency of most LED systems. While replicating this efficiency may not be immediately achievable, the principles underlying bioluminescent design—purposeful emission, temporal specificity, and energy conservation—can inform sustainable lighting approaches.

Adaptive Lighting Techniques

Smart Technologies and Circadian Considerations

The development of adaptive lighting systems represents a crucial step toward reconciling urban illumination needs with ecological and health considerations. These technologies move beyond static lighting schemes to create dynamic environments that respond to natural cycles, environmental conditions, and human activities.

Smart lighting networks equipped with sensors can monitor ambient light levels, weather conditions, pedestrian activity, and even air quality to adjust illumination intensity and color temperature accordingly. During peak evening hours, these systems might provide higher illumination levels to support safety and social activities. As night progresses and activity diminish, lighting can gradually dim and shift toward warmer color temperatures, reducing energy consumption and supporting natural circadian rhythms.

The integration of circadian lighting principles into urban systems requires understanding the relationship between light exposure timing, intensity, and spectral composition. Research indicates that even modest adjustments to lighting color temperature—shifting from cool blue-white light (5000K-6500K) during evening hours to warm amber light (2700K-3000K) during late night periods—can significantly reduce circadian disruption while maintaining adequate visibility for safety (Zeitzer et al., 2000).

Temporal programming represents another crucial dimension of adaptive lighting. Rather than maintaining constant illumination levels throughout the night, adaptive systems can follow gradual dimming curves that mirror natural sunset patterns. This approach reduces overall energy consumption while providing environmental cues that support healthy sleep-wake cycles for urban residents.

Directional Lighting and Light Spill Reduction

Directional lighting design addresses one of the primary causes of light pollution: poorly aimed fixtures that emit light in all directions rather than focusing illumination where needed. Nature provides excellent models for directional light emission through organisms that have evolved sophisticated optical systems for controlling light distribution.

The compound eyes of nocturnal insects demonstrate precise light detection and direction-finding capabilities, while bioluminescent organisms often employ reflective surfaces and focused emission patterns to maximize communication efficiency while minimizing energy waste. These biological systems suggest design approaches for urban lighting that achieve necessary illumination levels while preventing unwanted light spillage into sensitive environments.

Full cutoff fixtures that direct light downward and shield upward emission represent a fundamental improvement over traditional spherical lighting design. These fixtures can reduce sky glow by 80-90% while maintaining ground-level illumination. When combined with precise aiming and appropriate mounting heights, directional lighting can create well-lit urban environments with minimal ecological impact.

The implementation of lighting zones based on environmental sensitivity and functional requirements provides another strategy for managing light distribution. Areas adjacent to natural habitats, migratory corridors, or residential neighborhoods might employ more restrictive lighting standards, while commercial districts could maintain higher illumination levels within carefully defined boundaries.

Bio-Inspired Lighting Solutions

Biomimetic Fixture Design

The translation of biological lighting principles into architectural applications requires innovative fixture designs that capture the essential characteristics of natural illumination systems. Bio-inspired lighting fixtures can incorporate organic shapes, material properties, and operational patterns that reflect millions of years of evolutionary optimization.

Organic form integration in lighting design moves beyond purely functional considerations to create fixtures that harmonize with natural environments. Fixtures inspired by plant forms—such as tree-like structures with branching patterns that distribute light points across three-dimensional space—can provide distributed illumination that reduces harsh shadows while creating more naturalistic lighting environments.

The development of responsive fixture systems that adjust their output based on environmental conditions represents another application of biomimetic principles. Similar to plants that track solar movement or flowers that open and close in response to light levels, adaptive fixtures could modify their orientation, intensity, or spectral output based on weather conditions, seasonal changes, or activity patterns.

Material innovation in lighting design can draw inspiration from biological light-manipulation strategies. The iridescent surfaces of butterfly wings, the light-gathering properties of fiber-optic-like structures in marine organisms, or the anti-reflective coatings found on moth eyes offer models for developing lighting systems with improved efficiency and reduced glare.

Dynamic Lighting Patterns

Natural lighting rarely maintains constant intensity or color. The rhythmic pulsing of bioluminescent organisms, the gradual transitions of natural daily cycles, and the seasonal variations in light quality all suggest approaches for creating dynamic urban lighting environments that maintain interest and support natural rhythms while avoiding the static monotony of conventional lighting.

Temporal lighting programs can incorporate natural variation patterns that change throughout the night, across seasons, or in response to weather conditions. These programs might gradually shift color temperature from warm white during early evening hours to very warm amber during late night periods, supporting natural melatonin production while maintaining essential visibility for safety and navigation.

Interactive lighting systems that respond to human presence or activity can minimize unnecessary illumination while providing enhanced lighting when and where needed. Motion sensors, sound detection, or even biometric monitoring could trigger lighting responses that support human activities without maintaining constant high-level illumination throughout empty urban spaces.

The integration of seasonal lighting cycles that reflect natural variations in daylight duration and quality can help urban environments maintain connection with natural temporal rhythms. During winter months when daylight is limited, lighting systems might provide slightly higher evening illumination to support mental health and social activities, while summer programs could emphasize minimal nighttime lighting to take advantage of extended natural daylight.

Community Engagement and Education

Fostering Environmental Awareness

The transformation toward sustainable urban lighting requires not only technological innovation but also community understanding and support for lighting practices that prioritize ecological and health considerations. Public education campaigns can help residents understand the connections between lighting choices and environmental health, encouraging individual actions that support community-wide sustainability goals.

Dark sky education programs can reintroduce urban populations to the beauty and ecological importance of natural night environments. Community star-gazing events, night nature walks, and presentations about the impacts of light pollution can build appreciation for darkness as a valuable natural resource rather than simply an absence of light.

The establishment of lighting guidelines for private properties encourages individual property owners to adopt responsible lighting practices. These guidelines might recommend fully shielded fixtures, appropriate intensity levels for different applications, and timer controls that minimize unnecessary nighttime illumination. When widely adopted, these individual actions create cumulative impacts that significantly improve community-wide lighting quality.

Community lighting audits that engage residents in assessing neighborhood lighting conditions can build awareness while identifying specific areas for improvement. These participatory processes help residents understand the relationship between lighting design choices and environmental outcomes while creating opportunities for collaborative problem-solving.

Policy Development and Implementation

The creation of effective lighting ordinances requires balancing community safety and functional lighting needs with environmental protection and health considerations. These policies must address technical specifications for lighting fixtures, operational requirements for different land uses, and enforcement mechanisms that ensure compliance with sustainable lighting standards.

Zoning-based lighting regulations can establish different illumination standards for various urban areas based on their environmental sensitivity and functional requirements. Commercial districts might allow higher illumination levels within specific time periods, while residential areas and environmentally sensitive zones could require more restrictive lighting standards throughout the night.

The development of incentive programs that encourage adoption of sustainable lighting technologies can accelerate community-wide improvements. Rebate programs for energy-efficient fixtures, tax credits for properties that meet dark-sky-friendly lighting standards, or utility rate structures that reward responsible lighting practices can make sustainable lighting economically attractive for property owners and businesses.

Regional coordination on lighting policies can prevent the fragmentation that often undermines environmental protection efforts. When neighboring municipalities adopt compatible lighting standards, the cumulative benefits for wildlife habitat, energy conservation, and human health are significantly enhanced compared to isolated local efforts.

Case Studies and Applications

Urban Implementation Examples

Several cities worldwide have begun implementing nature-inspired lighting approaches that demonstrate the practical feasibility and benefits of sustainable urban illumination. These examples provide valuable insights into the challenges and opportunities associated with transforming urban lighting systems.

Flagstaff, Arizona, recognized as the world's first International Dark Sky City, has implemented comprehensive lighting ordinances that require fully shielded fixtures, limit illumination levels, and restrict the color temperature of outdoor lighting. The city's approach balances public safety requirements with astronomical observation needs and wildlife protection, demonstrating that urban areas can maintain functionality while dramatically reducing light pollution.

The town of Flagstaff, Arizona (above), tightly controls light pollution in order to minimise impacts on the night sky. (Photo: HARUN MEHMEDINOVIC/SKYGLOW PROJECT)

The results in Flagstaff include significant reductions in energy consumption, enhanced visibility of the night sky that supports astronomical tourism, and documented benefits for local wildlife populations. The city's lighting transformation required initial investment in new fixtures and ongoing education efforts but has generated long-term economic benefits through reduced energy costs and enhanced quality of life for residents.

The Netherlands has pioneered adaptive lighting systems that adjust intensity and color temperature based on traffic patterns and environmental conditions. Dutch highways employ lighting that dims during low traffic periods and increases illumination when vehicle presence is detected. This approach has achieved 50% reductions in lighting energy consumption while maintaining safety standards.

Daan Roosegaarde's pilot Smart Highway is a Dutch road illuminated with solar power

Urban park systems in several European cities have implemented ecological lighting zones that provide essential safety illumination while protecting nocturnal wildlife habitats. These installations often employ amber-colored LED systems that minimize impacts on insect populations, directional fixtures that prevent light spillage into sensitive areas, and timer controls that reduce illumination during late night hours when park use is minimal.

Residential and Commercial Applications

The principles of nature-inspired lighting extend beyond public infrastructure to residential and commercial properties where individual lighting choices contribute to community-wide environmental impacts. Residential lighting design that incorporates sustainable principles can create attractive, functional outdoor environments while supporting ecological health and energy conservation.

Pathway lighting systems inspired by bioluminescent organisms can provide safe navigation through outdoor spaces while minimizing environmental impact. Low-level fixtures that emit warm-colored light in response to the pedestrian movement create magical, firefly-like environments that enhance rather than overwhelm natural nighttime ambiance.

Commercial lighting applications face unique challenges in balancing business visibility and branding requirements with environmental responsibility. However, innovative approaches such as facade lighting that employ programmable LED systems can create attractive building illumination during evening business hours while automatically dimming or shutting off during late night periods when visibility benefits are minimal.

The development of lighting master plans for residential developments and commercial districts can coordinate individual lighting decisions to create coherent, environmentally responsible illumination strategies. These plans might establish design guidelines, recommend specific fixture types, and create lighting zones that balance various functional and environmental requirements.

Technological Innovation and Future Directions

Emerging Lighting Technologies

The rapid advancement of LED technology continues to expand possibilities for energy-efficient, controllable lighting systems that can support both human needs and environmental health. Next-generation LED systems offer improved color rendering, enhanced efficiency, and sophisticated control capabilities that enable unprecedented precision in lighting design.

Tunable white LED systems that can adjust color temperature throughout the night represent a crucial technology for supporting circadian health while maintaining lighting functionality. These systems can provide bright, blue-rich illumination during early evening hours to support alertness and social activities, then gradually shift to warm, amber-colored light during late night periods to minimize circadian disruption.

The integration of wireless control networks enables lighting systems to respond to real-time environmental conditions and usage patterns. Sensors monitoring pedestrian activity, vehicular traffic, weather conditions, and ambient light levels can trigger automatic adjustments that optimize lighting performance while minimizing energy consumption and environmental impact.

Solar-powered lighting systems with advanced battery storage capabilities offer opportunities for creating lighting installations that operate independently from electrical grid systems. These systems can be particularly valuable in parks, natural areas, and remote locations where extending electrical infrastructure would be costly or environmentally disruptive.

Integration with Smart City Systems

The development of integrated smart city platforms creates opportunities for lighting systems to coordinate with other urban infrastructure in ways that optimize overall environmental performance. Traffic management systems, public transportation networks, and building automation systems can share data that enables more sophisticated lighting responses to urban activity patterns.

Adaptive lighting algorithms that learn from historical usage patterns can predict lighting needs and pre-emptively adjust system performance to optimize energy efficiency while ensuring adequate illumination for safety and functionality. Machine learning approaches can identify subtle patterns in urban activity that enable more precise lighting control than traditional timer-based systems.

The integration of environmental monitoring sensors into lighting networks can create distributed data collection systems that support broader environmental management goals. Air quality sensors, noise monitors, and weather stations incorporated into lighting fixtures can provide real-time environmental data while serving their primary illumination functions.

Energy storage integration with renewable energy systems can enable lighting networks to operate on clean energy during nighttime hours. Advanced battery systems charged by solar panels during daylight hours can power lighting networks without drawing from electrical grids that may rely on fossil fuel generation during peak demand periods.

Challenges and Solutions

Technical Implementation Barriers

The transition toward nature-inspired urban lighting faces several significant technical challenges that require innovative solutions and careful planning. Initial capital costs for advanced lighting systems often exceed conventional alternatives, creating economic barriers for municipalities and property owners working within constrained budgets.

Retrofit challenges in existing urban areas present complex technical and logistical obstacles. Replacing installed lighting infrastructure requires coordination with multiple utility systems, temporary lighting provisions during installation periods, and adaptation to existing electrical systems that may not support advanced control capabilities.

The maintenance requirements of sophisticated lighting systems can exceed the capacity of existing municipal maintenance programs. Advanced sensors, control systems, and programmable fixtures require specialized knowledge and replacement parts that may not be readily available through conventional maintenance supply chains.

Standardization issues across different lighting manufacturers and control systems can create compatibility problems when implementing community-wide lighting improvements. The lack of universal protocols for lighting control and monitoring can result in fragmented systems that cannot achieve optimal coordination and performance.

Economic and Social Considerations

Cost-benefit analysis of sustainable lighting investments must account for both direct economic impacts and broader environmental and health benefits that may not be immediately quantified. While energy savings and reduced maintenance costs provide clear economic advantages, the value of improved ecological health and human well-being requires more sophisticated evaluation methods.

Social acceptance of changes to familiar lighting environments can present unexpected challenges. Residents accustomed to high-intensity, blue-white lighting may initially perceive warmer, lower-intensity lighting as inadequate or unsafe, even when objective safety measures remain unchanged.

Equity considerations in lighting improvement programs must ensure that sustainable lighting benefits reach all community members rather than concentrating in affluent neighborhoods that can afford advanced systems. Public programs and financing mechanisms may be necessary to prevent the creation of lighting inequality within communities.

The learning curve associated with new lighting technologies can create temporary inefficiencies as maintenance staff, property owners, and users adapt to different operational requirements and capabilities. Training programs and technical support systems are essential for successful transitions to sustainable lighting practices.

Conclusions and Future Implications

The transformation of urban lighting from an environmental liability into a tool for ecological restoration and human health represents one of the most achievable goals within sustainable city development. Nature-inspired lighting approaches offer practical solutions that can be implemented with existing technologies while supporting both immediate human needs and long-term environmental sustainability.

The evidence presented throughout this analysis demonstrates that biomimetic lighting design principles can address the fundamental problems of conventional urban lighting while maintaining or enhancing functionality for human activities. The integration of circadian considerations, directional light control, adaptive response systems, and community engagement creates a comprehensive framework for sustainable urban illumination.

Economic benefits of nature-inspired lighting extend beyond simple energy savings to include reduced healthcare costs associated with circadian disruption, enhanced property values in well-designed lighting environments, and tourism advantages in communities that preserve access to natural night sky conditions. These broader economic impacts justify initial investments in advanced lighting systems and provide sustainable financing models for ongoing improvements.

The scalability of nature-inspired lighting approaches enables implementation across diverse urban contexts, from individual properties to city-wide infrastructure networks. Modular improvements can begin with demonstration projects and expand gradually as technologies mature and costs decrease, making sustainable lighting accessible to communities with varying economic resources.

Technological convergence between lighting systems, renewable energy, smart city infrastructure, and environmental monitoring creates opportunities for lighting networks to serve multiple urban functions simultaneously. This integration amplifies the value proposition for advanced lighting investments while supporting broader sustainability goals across urban systems.

The global applicability of nature-inspired lighting principles transcends specific regional or cultural contexts, as all human populations share similar circadian physiology and all ecosystems benefit from reduced light pollution. This universality enables knowledge sharing and technology transfer that can accelerate worldwide adoption of sustainable lighting practices.

Future research directions should focus on developing a more sophisticated understanding of the relationships between specific lighting characteristics and ecological impacts, creating standardized metrics for evaluating lighting sustainability performance, and designing adaptive systems that can respond to changing environmental conditions and urban development patterns.

The path toward sustainable urban lighting illuminated through nature's inspiration offers hope for cities that honor both human aspirations and ecological integrity. By learning from millions of years of evolutionary optimization and applying these lessons through thoughtful technology integration and community engagement, urban environments can become places that support rather than disrupt the natural systems upon which all life depends.

The transformation begins with recognition that darkness is not merely the absence of light but a valuable natural resource that supports ecological health, human well-being, and connection to the cosmic environment that surrounds our small planet. In preserving and restoring natural darkness while providing essential illumination for human activities, we create cities that truly embody sustainability principles and serve as models for harmonious coexistence between human culture and natural systems.

References

Gaston, K. J., Duffy, J. P., & Bennie, J. (2015). Quantifying the erosion of natural darkness in the global protected area system. Conservation Biology, 29(4), 1132-1141.

Kyba, C. C., Kuester, T., De Miguel, A. S., Baugh, K., Jechow, A., Hölker, F., ... & Guanter, L. (2017). Artificially lit surface of Earth at night increasing in radiance and extent. Science Advances, 3(11), e1701528.

Longcore, T., & Rich, C. (2004). Ecological light pollution. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 2(4), 191-198.

Reid, K. J., Santostasi, G., Baron, K. G., Wilson, J., Kang, J., & Zee, P. C. (2014). Timing and intensity of light correlate with body weight in adults. PLoS One, 9(4), e92251.

Stevens, R. G., Brainard, G. C., Blask, D. E., Lockley, S. W., & Motta, M. E. (2014). Breast cancer and circadian disruption from electric lighting in the modern world. CA: A Cancer Journal for Clinicians, 64(3), 207-218.

Thapan, K., Arendt, J., & Skene, D. J. (2001). An action spectrum for melatonin suppression: evidence for a novel non-rod, non-cone photoreceptor system in humans. Journal of Physiology, 535(1), 261-267.

Van Bommel, W. J. (2006). Road lighting and traffic safety. In Handbook of Traffic Psychology (pp. 417-428). Academic Press.

Zeitzer, J. M., Dijk, D. J., Kronauer, R., Brown, E., & Czeisler, C. (2000). Sensitivity of the human circadian pacemaker to nocturnal light: melatonin phase resetting and suppression. Journal of Physiology, 526(3), 695-702.

Bibliography

English Sources

Gaston, K. J., Duffy, J. P., & Bennie, J. 2015, "Quantifying the erosion of natural darkness in the global protected area system", Conservation Biology, 29(4), 1132-1141.

Kyba, C. C., Kuester, T., De Miguel, A. S., Baugh, K., Jechow, A., Hölker, F., Bennie, J., Elvidge, C. D., Gaston, K. J., & Guanter, L. 2017, "Artificially lit surface of Earth at night increasing in radiance and extent", Science Advances, 3(11), e1701528.

Longcore, T., & Rich, C. 2004, "Ecological light pollution", Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 2(4), 191-198.

Reid, K. J., Santostasi, G., Baron, K. G., Wilson, J., Kang, J., & Zee, P. C. 2014, "Timing and intensity of light correlate with body weight in adults", PLoS One, 9(4), e92251.

Stevens, R. G., Brainard, G. C., Blask, D. E., Lockley, S. W., & Motta, M. E. 2014, "Breast cancer and circadian disruption from electric lighting in the modern world", CA: A Cancer Journal for Clinicians, 64(3), 207-218.

Thapan, K., Arendt, J., & Skene, D. J. 2001, "An action spectrum for melatonin suppression: evidence for a novel non-rod, non-cone photoreceptor system in humans", Journal of Physiology, 535(1), 261-267.

Van Bommel, W. J. 2006, "Road lighting and traffic safety", Handbook of Traffic Psychology, Academic Press, Cambridge, 417-428.

Zeitzer, J. M., Dijk, D. J., Kronauer, R., Brown, E., & Czeisler, C. 2000, "Sensitivity of the human circadian pacemaker to nocturnal light: melatonin phase resetting and suppression", Journal of Physiology, 526(3), 695-702.

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